Tumour-immune dynamics models

Kuznetsov and colleagues' 1994 model treated effector immune cells and tumour cells as interacting populations, reproducing dormancy, sneaking-through and oscillations. Later models added checkpoints, exhaustion, antigen presentation and cytokines, and have been used to explain pseudoprogression and hyperprogression under PD-1 blockade, to propose sequencing of radiotherapy and immunotherapy, and to simulate CAR-T expansion and cytokine release. Quantitative systems pharmacology models of checkpoint blockade are increasingly used by developers to choose doses and combinations.