{"entity":{"id":"organoids","kind":"technology","name":"Patient-derived organoids","aka":[],"tldr":"Patient-derived organoids are miniature 3D versions of a patient's tumour grown in the lab.","summary":"Patient-derived organoids are grown by stem-cell-driven 3D culture in an extracellular matrix with defined growth factors, so a piece of a patient's tumour becomes a self-renewing miniature that keeps its genotype and drug response. Living biobanks of organoids (HUB, Broad) preserve genotype and drug response across many cancer types. They are used for drug screening, CRISPR studies, and increasingly co-cultured with immune cells for immunotherapy testing. The main limitation is that organoids lack vasculature and the full microenvironment, so stromal and immune effects are only partly captured, and prospective evidence that organoid drug testing improves patient outcomes is still being gathered. For a newcomer, an organoid is a lab-grown copy of one person's tumour that can be tested against drugs before the patient is.","status":"established","asOf":"2026-09-04","wikipedia":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organoid","links":[{"label":"Wikipedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organoid"}],"tags":[],"related":[],"cancers":["colorectal"],"sections":["drug-discovery"],"technologies":[],"targets":[],"drugs":[],"companies":["known-medicine","zpredicta","kernis-health","specicare","kiyatec","cure-first","sagemedic","2curex"],"institutions":[],"pathways":[],"terms":[],"trials":["nct06227065","nct05725200"],"people":[],"bottlenecks":[],"keyPapers":["paper-sato-lgr5-organoids-nature-2009","paper-bertotti-xenopatients-her2-cetuximab-resistant-colorectal-cancer-discov-2011","paper-calon-stromal-gene-expression-poor-prognosis-colorectal-nat-genet-2015"],"journals":[],"dependsOn":[],"notes":["Colorectal cancer: patient-derived xenografts and organoids are where HER2 was identified as a cetuximab-resistance target before any trial (Bertotti 2011) and where TGF-beta inhibition was shown to break the fibroblast-to-cancer-cell cross-talk (Calon 2015)."],"principle":"Stem-cell-driven 3D culture in extracellular matrix with defined growth factors.","strengths":["Fidelity to patient tumour","Scalable"],"limitations":["Lacks vasculature and full microenvironment"]},"route":"/technologies/organoids/","neighbours":{"cancer":[{"id":"colorectal","kind":"cancer","name":"Colorectal cancer","route":"/cancers/colorectal/"},{"id":"pancreatic","kind":"cancer","name":"Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma","route":"/cancers/pancreatic/"}],"section":[{"id":"drug-discovery","kind":"section","name":"Drug Discovery Platforms","route":"/fronts/drug-discovery/"}],"company":[{"id":"2curex","kind":"company","name":"2cureX","route":"/companies/2curex/"},{"id":"champions-oncology","kind":"company","name":"Champions Oncology","route":"/companies/champions-oncology/"},{"id":"cure-first","kind":"company","name":"Cure-First","route":"/companies/cure-first/"},{"id":"hub-organoids","kind":"company","name":"HUB Organoids","route":"/companies/hub-organoids/"},{"id":"kernis-health","kind":"company","name":"Kernis Health","route":"/companies/kernis-health/"},{"id":"kiyatec","kind":"company","name":"Kiyatec","route":"/companies/kiyatec/"},{"id":"known-medicine","kind":"company","name":"Known Medicine","route":"/companies/known-medicine/"},{"id":"sagemedic","kind":"company","name":"SageMedic","route":"/companies/sagemedic/"},{"id":"sengine","kind":"company","name":"SEngine Precision Medicine","route":"/companies/sengine/"},{"id":"specicare","kind":"company","name":"SpeciCare","route":"/companies/specicare/"},{"id":"xilis","kind":"company","name":"Xilis","route":"/companies/xilis/"},{"id":"zpredicta","kind":"company","name":"zPREDICTA","route":"/companies/zpredicta/"}],"trial":[{"id":"nct06227065","kind":"trial","name":"Precise Chemoresection in Low-grade NMIBC Using Drug Screens in Patient-derived Organoids","route":"/trials/nct06227065/"},{"id":"nct05725200","kind":"trial","name":"Study to Investigate Outcome of Individualized Treatment in Patients With Metastatic Colorectal Cancer","route":"/trials/nct05725200/"}],"paper":[{"id":"paper-bertotti-xenopatients-her2-cetuximab-resistant-colorectal-cancer-discov-2011","kind":"paper","name":"A molecularly annotated platform of patient-derived xenografts identifies HER2 as an effective therapeutic target in cetuximab-resistant colorectal cancer","route":"/key-papers/paper-bertotti-xenopatients-her2-cetuximab-resistant-colorectal-cancer-discov-2011/"},{"id":"paper-ohlund-caf-subtypes-mycaf-icaf-jem-2017","kind":"paper","name":"Distinct populations of inflammatory fibroblasts and myofibroblasts in pancreatic cancer","route":"/key-papers/paper-ohlund-caf-subtypes-mycaf-icaf-jem-2017/"},{"id":"paper-gainor-alk-resistance-mutations-cancer-discov-2016","kind":"paper","name":"Molecular mechanisms of resistance to first- and second-generation ALK inhibitors in ALK-rearranged lung cancer","route":"/key-papers/paper-gainor-alk-resistance-mutations-cancer-discov-2016/"},{"id":"paper-rudin-sclc-molecular-subtypes-nat-rev-cancer-2019","kind":"paper","name":"Molecular subtypes of small cell lung cancer: a synthesis of human and mouse model data","route":"/key-papers/paper-rudin-sclc-molecular-subtypes-nat-rev-cancer-2019/"},{"id":"paper-gay-sclc-subtypes-inflamed-cancer-cell-2021","kind":"paper","name":"Patterns of transcription factor programs and immune pathway activation define four major subtypes of SCLC with distinct therapeutic vulnerabilities","route":"/key-papers/paper-gay-sclc-subtypes-inflamed-cancer-cell-2021/"},{"id":"paper-reproducibility-project-cancer-biology-elife-2021","kind":"paper","name":"Reproducibility Project: Cancer Biology found that landmark preclinical results mostly shrank or vanished on replication","route":"/key-papers/paper-reproducibility-project-cancer-biology-elife-2021/"},{"id":"paper-sato-lgr5-organoids-nature-2009","kind":"paper","name":"Sato 2009: single Lgr5 stem cells build crypt-villus organoids","route":"/key-papers/paper-sato-lgr5-organoids-nature-2009/"},{"id":"paper-grunwald-subtme-pancreatic-cell-2021","kind":"paper","name":"Spatially confined sub-tumor microenvironments in pancreatic cancer","route":"/key-papers/paper-grunwald-subtme-pancreatic-cell-2021/"},{"id":"paper-calon-stromal-gene-expression-poor-prognosis-colorectal-nat-genet-2015","kind":"paper","name":"Stromal gene expression defines poor-prognosis subtypes in colorectal cancer","route":"/key-papers/paper-calon-stromal-gene-expression-poor-prognosis-colorectal-nat-genet-2015/"}],"technology":[{"id":"biobanking","kind":"technology","name":"Biobanking and tissue procurement","route":"/technologies/biobanking/"},{"id":"cancer-cell-line-encyclopedias","kind":"technology","name":"Cancer cell line encyclopedias and dependency maps","route":"/technologies/cancer-cell-line-encyclopedias/"},{"id":"functional-precision-medicine-haematology","kind":"technology","name":"Ex vivo drug sensitivity screening in blood cancers (EXALT)","route":"/technologies/functional-precision-medicine-haematology/"},{"id":"functional-drug-testing","kind":"technology","name":"Functional (ex vivo) drug testing","route":"/technologies/functional-drug-testing/"},{"id":"genetically-engineered-mouse-models","kind":"technology","name":"Genetically engineered mouse models","route":"/technologies/genetically-engineered-mouse-models/"},{"id":"organoid-guided-therapy-scale","kind":"technology","name":"Organoid-guided therapy at scale","route":"/technologies/organoid-guided-therapy-scale/"},{"id":"pdac-organoid-pharmacotyping","kind":"technology","name":"PDAC organoid pharmacotyping","route":"/technologies/pdac-organoid-pharmacotyping/"},{"id":"tumour-on-chip","kind":"technology","name":"Tumour-on-a-chip","route":"/technologies/tumour-on-chip/"}],"term":[{"id":"cell-line","kind":"term","name":"Cell line","route":"/terms/cell-line/"},{"id":"caf-subtypes-pancreatic","kind":"term","name":"Fibroblast subtypes in the pancreatic cancer stroma (myCAF, iCAF and apCAF)","route":"/terms/caf-subtypes-pancreatic/"},{"id":"in-vitro-in-vivo","kind":"term","name":"In vitro and in vivo","route":"/terms/in-vitro-in-vivo/"},{"id":"organoid","kind":"term","name":"Organoid","route":"/terms/organoid/"},{"id":"preclinical","kind":"term","name":"Preclinical","route":"/terms/preclinical/"}],"institution":[{"id":"wake-forest-cancer","kind":"institution","name":"Atrium Health Wake Forest Baptist Comprehensive Cancer Center","route":"/institutions/wake-forest-cancer/"},{"id":"cold-spring-harbor","kind":"institution","name":"Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory","route":"/institutions/cold-spring-harbor/"},{"id":"keio-university-hospital","kind":"institution","name":"Keio University Hospital","route":"/institutions/keio-university-hospital/"},{"id":"lustgarten-foundation","kind":"institution","name":"Lustgarten Foundation","route":"/institutions/lustgarten-foundation/"},{"id":"princess-maxima","kind":"institution","name":"Princess Máxima Center for Pediatric Oncology","route":"/institutions/princess-maxima/"},{"id":"tongji-hospital-wuhan","kind":"institution","name":"Tongji Hospital, Huazhong University of Science and Technology","route":"/institutions/tongji-hospital-wuhan/"},{"id":"umc-utrecht","kind":"institution","name":"UMC Utrecht Cancer Center","route":"/institutions/umc-utrecht/"},{"id":"wehi","kind":"institution","name":"Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research","route":"/institutions/wehi/"},{"id":"wellcome-sanger","kind":"institution","name":"Wellcome Sanger Institute","route":"/institutions/wellcome-sanger/"}],"idea":[{"id":"idea-bio2-marrow-niche-on-chip","kind":"idea","name":"A bone marrow niche on a chip to study human dormancy","route":"/ideas/idea-bio2-marrow-niche-on-chip/"},{"id":"idea-bio2-dormancy-selective-screen","kind":"idea","name":"A drug screen that only rewards killing sleeping cancer cells","route":"/ideas/idea-bio2-dormancy-selective-screen/"},{"id":"idea-fund-organoid-translation-gate","kind":"idea","name":"A funded organoid and PDX panel as the go/no-go gate before IND-enabling money","route":"/ideas/idea-fund-organoid-translation-gate/"},{"id":"idea-tr2-organoid-matrix-atlas","kind":"idea","name":"A public atlas of drug-pair responses across a thousand patient-derived organoids","route":"/ideas/idea-tr2-organoid-matrix-atlas/"},{"id":"idea-moon-synthetic-lethality-map-every-driver","kind":"idea","name":"A synthetic lethality map for every cancer driver in every tissue context","route":"/ideas/idea-moon-synthetic-lethality-map-every-driver/"},{"id":"idea-fund-universal-mta-fast-lane","kind":"idea","name":"A universal material transfer agreement with a thirty-day default","route":"/ideas/idea-fund-universal-mta-fast-lane/"},{"id":"idea-moon-independent-replication-institute","kind":"idea","name":"An independent replication institute that re-tests key preclinical cancer findings before trials","route":"/ideas/idea-moon-independent-replication-institute/"},{"id":"idea-tr2-synergy-ranking-engine","kind":"idea","name":"An open engine that ranks every drug pair by predicted synergy before anyone runs a trial","route":"/ideas/idea-tr2-synergy-ranking-engine/"},{"id":"idea-bio2-rare-tumour-model-bank","kind":"idea","name":"An open model bank for the rare tumours nobody has models for","route":"/ideas/idea-bio2-rare-tumour-model-bank/"},{"id":"idea-moon-open-cancer-cell-state-model","kind":"idea","name":"An open model of every cancer cell state, built from perturbation atlases","route":"/ideas/idea-moon-open-cancer-cell-state-model/"},{"id":"idea-bio1-rare-cancer-organoid-bank","kind":"idea","name":"An open organoid bank for cancers too rare to have models","route":"/ideas/idea-bio1-rare-cancer-organoid-bank/"},{"id":"idea-moon-automated-combination-discovery","kind":"idea","name":"Automated combination discovery: patient-sample screens feeding Bayesian platform trials","route":"/ideas/idea-moon-automated-combination-discovery/"},{"id":"idea-bio1-barcoded-avatars-clonal-fitness","kind":"idea","name":"Barcode patient-derived tumours to watch which clones win under each drug","route":"/ideas/idea-bio1-barcoded-avatars-clonal-fitness/"},{"id":"idea-bio2-blood-csf-barrier-model","kind":"idea","name":"Build a human model of the barrier that guards the brain fluid","route":"/ideas/idea-bio2-blood-csf-barrier-model/"},{"id":"idea-bio1-metastatic-niche-models","kind":"idea","name":"Build laboratory models of the organs cancer spreads to","route":"/ideas/idea-bio1-metastatic-niche-models/"},{"id":"idea-data-digital-twin-predict-then-observe","kind":"idea","name":"Digital twins for treatment selection, validated by predicting before observing","route":"/ideas/idea-data-digital-twin-predict-then-observe/"},{"id":"idea-bio2-ctc-culture-functional-testing","kind":"idea","name":"Grow blood-borne tumour cells to test drugs on the cells that actually spread","route":"/ideas/idea-bio2-ctc-culture-functional-testing/"},{"id":"idea-tr2-organoid-coclinical-arms","kind":"idea","name":"Grow each trial patient's tumour as organoids to decide which platform arm opens next","route":"/ideas/idea-tr2-organoid-coclinical-arms/"},{"id":"idea-bio1-ctc-derived-explants","kind":"idea","name":"Grow models from tumour cells in the blood when a biopsy is impossible","route":"/ideas/idea-bio1-ctc-derived-explants/"},{"id":"idea-bio1-organoid-immune-coculture","kind":"idea","name":"Grow tumour organoids together with the patient's own immune cells","route":"/ideas/idea-bio1-organoid-immune-coculture/"},{"id":"idea-bio1-organoid-assay-clinical-validation","kind":"idea","name":"Hold organoid drug tests to the same standard as a diagnostic test","route":"/ideas/idea-bio1-organoid-assay-clinical-validation/"},{"id":"idea-bio1-ex-vivo-perfused-tumour","kind":"idea","name":"Keep a freshly removed tumour alive on a pump and test drugs in it","route":"/ideas/idea-bio1-ex-vivo-perfused-tumour/"},{"id":"idea-bio1-multi-organ-chip-tox","kind":"idea","name":"Linked human organ chips to predict side effects before people are dosed","route":"/ideas/idea-bio1-multi-organ-chip-tox/"},{"id":"idea-bio2-metastasis-screen-standard","kind":"idea","name":"Make in vivo metastasis screens a required step in drug discovery","route":"/ideas/idea-bio2-metastasis-screen-standard/"},{"id":"idea-organoid-guided-adc","kind":"idea","name":"Patient-derived organoids to pick ADC payloads","route":"/ideas/idea-organoid-guided-adc/"},{"id":"idea-bio1-model-patient-matching","kind":"idea","name":"Pick the laboratory model that matches the patient, not the one to hand","route":"/ideas/idea-bio1-model-patient-matching/"},{"id":"idea-bio1-co-clinical-avatar-trials","kind":"idea","name":"Run the mouse or organoid trial at the same time as the human trial","route":"/ideas/idea-bio1-co-clinical-avatar-trials/"},{"id":"idea-bio1-model-predictivity-benchmark","kind":"idea","name":"Score every model system on how well it predicted real trial results","route":"/ideas/idea-bio1-model-predictivity-benchmark/"},{"id":"idea-tr2-model-report-cards","kind":"idea","name":"Score every preclinical model by how often it predicted the clinical result","route":"/ideas/idea-tr2-model-report-cards/"},{"id":"idea-moon-self-driving-cancer-labs","kind":"idea","name":"Self-driving laboratories that run the cancer biology hypothesis loop autonomously","route":"/ideas/idea-moon-self-driving-cancer-labs/"},{"id":"idea-fund-replication-set-aside","kind":"idea","name":"Set aside 3% of grant budgets to replicate findings before translation","route":"/ideas/idea-fund-replication-set-aside/"},{"id":"idea-tr2-reference-model-panels","kind":"idea","name":"Shared reference organoid and PDX panels that every lab can test against","route":"/ideas/idea-tr2-reference-model-panels/"},{"id":"idea-bio1-tumour-slice-cultures","kind":"idea","name":"Test drugs on freshly cut slices of the patient's own tumour","route":"/ideas/idea-bio1-tumour-slice-cultures/"},{"id":"idea-bio2-functional-precision-rare","kind":"idea","name":"Test drugs on the patient's own cancer cells when there is no trial to join","route":"/ideas/idea-bio2-functional-precision-rare/"},{"id":"idea-bio1-tumour-on-chip-penetration","kind":"idea","name":"Tumour-on-a-chip with blood flow to test whether big drugs actually get in","route":"/ideas/idea-bio1-tumour-on-chip-penetration/"},{"id":"idea-bio1-organoid-cell-therapy-potency","kind":"idea","name":"Use patient organoids to check a cell therapy will work before infusing it","route":"/ideas/idea-bio1-organoid-cell-therapy-potency/"}],"collection":[{"id":"cancer-models","kind":"collection","name":"Cancer Models (PDCM Finder) & HCMI","route":"/collections/cancer-models/"}],"person":[{"id":"andrew-aguirre","kind":"person","name":"Andrew J. Aguirre","route":"/people/andrew-aguirre/"},{"id":"david-tuveson","kind":"person","name":"David A. Tuveson","route":"/people/david-tuveson/"},{"id":"emile-voest","kind":"person","name":"Emile Voest","route":"/people/emile-voest/"},{"id":"talia-golan","kind":"person","name":"Talia Golan","route":"/people/talia-golan/"}],"bottleneck":[{"id":"b-preclinical-models","kind":"bottleneck","name":"Lab models that fail to predict what happens in patients","route":"/bottlenecks/b-preclinical-models/"},{"id":"b-reproducibility","kind":"bottleneck","name":"Preclinical results do not reproduce","route":"/bottlenecks/b-reproducibility/"},{"id":"b-combination-space","kind":"bottleneck","name":"Too many combinations to test","route":"/bottlenecks/b-combination-space/"}],"journal":[{"id":"cell-stem-cell","kind":"journal","name":"Cell Stem Cell","route":"/journals/cell-stem-cell/"}],"roadmap":[{"id":"drug-discovery-roadmap","kind":"roadmap","name":"Drug discovery roadmap: screening in mice → maps of dependency → designing in silico","route":"/roadmaps/drug-discovery-roadmap/"},{"id":"virtual-cell","kind":"roadmap","name":"Virtual cell roadmap: from bulk omics to a predictive model of a cancer cell","route":"/roadmaps/virtual-cell/"}]}}