{"entity":{"id":"childhood-cancers","kind":"cancer","name":"Childhood cancers (all types)","aka":["Childhood Cancers","Paediatric cancers","Pediatric cancers","Cancer in children","Young Adults, Cancer in","Adolescent and young adult cancer"],"tldr":"Cancer in children is rare and different from adult cancer: the common types are leukaemias, brain tumours, lymphomas and embryonal tumours such as neuroblastoma and Wilms tumour, most are curable in well-resourced health systems, and the great challenge is bringing the same cures to the majority of children who live where they are not available.","summary":"Childhood cancers are mostly not the carcinomas of adults but leukaemias, brain and spinal cord tumours, lymphomas and embryonal tumours that arise in developing tissue: neuroblastoma, Wilms tumour, retinoblastoma, hepatoblastoma, rhabdomyosarcoma and bone sarcomas. Decades of cooperative group trials made most of them curable in high-income countries with combination chemotherapy, surgery and radiotherapy, and newer approaches such as CAR-T for leukaemia, anti-GD2 antibodies for neuroblastoma and targeted drugs for BRAF- or ALK-driven tumours are improving results further. Survival is far lower in low- and middle-income countries, where most children with cancer live, because of late diagnosis, abandonment of treatment and lack of drugs; the WHO Global Initiative for Childhood Cancer aims to raise survival there to at least 60% by 2030. Survivors carry lifelong late effects, so reducing treatment intensity where cure is secure is a major research theme. Adolescents and young adults (15 to 39) sit between paediatric and adult services and often do worse than either.","asOf":"2026-09-04","wikipedia":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Childhood_cancer","links":[{"label":"NCI: Childhood cancers","url":"https://www.cancer.gov/types/childhood-cancers"},{"label":"WHO Global Initiative for Childhood Cancer","url":"https://www.who.int/initiatives/the-global-initiative-for-childhood-cancer"}],"tags":["paediatric","umbrella"],"related":["all-leukemia","aml","medulloblastoma","dipg-dmg","ependymoma","paediatric-low-grade-glioma","atrt","neuroblastoma","retinoblastoma","hepatoblastoma","rhabdomyosarcoma","osteosarcoma","ewing-sarcoma","paediatric-germ-cell-tumours","pleuropulmonary-blastoma","hodgkin-lymphoma","burkitt-lymphoma"],"cancers":[],"sections":[],"technologies":["car-t"],"targets":["cd19","gd2"],"drugs":["blinatumomab","tisagenlecleucel","dinutuximab"],"companies":[],"institutions":[],"pathways":[],"terms":[],"trials":["nct05491525","nct04851717","nct05948943","nct06055959","nct06149559"],"people":[],"bottlenecks":[],"keyPapers":[],"journals":[],"dependsOn":[],"notes":[],"group":"paediatric","burden":"About 400,000 children and adolescents aged 0 to 19 develop cancer each year worldwide (WHO); leukaemias, brain tumours and lymphomas are the commonest, and the chance of cure depends heavily on where a child lives.","subtypes":["Acute lymphoblastic leukaemia","Acute myeloid leukaemia","Brain and spinal cord tumours (medulloblastoma, gliomas, ependymoma)","Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin lymphoma","Neuroblastoma","Wilms tumour","Retinoblastoma","Hepatoblastoma","Rhabdomyosarcoma and other soft tissue sarcomas","Osteosarcoma and Ewing sarcoma","Germ cell tumours","Rare tumours (pleuropulmonary blastoma, ATRT and others)"],"biomarkers":["Cytogenetics and minimal residual disease in leukaemia","MYCN amplification in neuroblastoma","Molecular subgroups in medulloblastoma","Germline predisposition (Li-Fraumeni, RB1, WT1 and others)"],"standardOfCare":[{"setting":"Leukaemias","approach":"Risk-stratified multi-agent chemotherapy over two to three years for ALL, with immunotherapy (blinatumomab, CAR-T) for high-risk or relapsed disease. See the ALL page.","refs":["blinatumomab","tisagenlecleucel"]},{"setting":"Solid tumours","approach":"Surgery, chemotherapy and radiotherapy by risk group in cooperative group protocols; anti-GD2 antibody for high-risk neuroblastoma. See the neuroblastoma, Wilms, sarcoma and brain tumour pages.","refs":["dinutuximab"]},{"setting":"Survivorship","approach":"Lifelong follow-up for late effects on heart, fertility, growth and second cancers, with a survivorship care plan; trials that reduce therapy where cure rates are high.","refs":["survivorship-care-plan"]}],"stateOfArt":[],"history":[{"year":1965,"title":"Combination chemotherapy first cures childhood leukaemia","note":"Multi-drug regimens at the National Cancer Institute and St Jude turned acute lymphoblastic leukaemia from a disease almost no child survived into a curable one.","refs":["vincristine","methotrexate"]},{"year":2015,"title":"Dinutuximab approved for high-risk neuroblastoma","note":"Anti-GD2 antibody added to maintenance therapy after the Children's Oncology Group trial.","refs":["dinutuximab"]},{"year":2017,"title":"First CAR-T therapy approved","note":"Tisagenlecleucel for children and young adults with relapsed or refractory B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukaemia.","refs":["tisagenlecleucel"]}],"pipeline":["naxitamab","tovorafenib","obecabtagene-autoleucel"],"openProblems":["Most children with cancer live where cure rates are below 30%.","Late effects affect the majority of long-term survivors.","Few new drugs are developed for children because the markets are small."]},"route":"/cancers/childhood-cancers/","neighbours":{"cancer":[{"id":"all-leukemia","kind":"cancer","name":"Acute lymphoblastic leukaemia","route":"/cancers/all-leukemia/"},{"id":"aml","kind":"cancer","name":"Acute myeloid leukaemia","route":"/cancers/aml/"},{"id":"aya-cancers","kind":"cancer","name":"Adolescent and young adult cancers (ages 15 to 39)","route":"/cancers/aya-cancers/"},{"id":"atrt","kind":"cancer","name":"Atypical teratoid/rhabdoid tumour (ATRT)","route":"/cancers/atrt/"},{"id":"burkitt-lymphoma","kind":"cancer","name":"Burkitt lymphoma","route":"/cancers/burkitt-lymphoma/"},{"id":"pleuropulmonary-blastoma","kind":"cancer","name":"Childhood lung and airway tumours (pleuropulmonary blastoma, tracheobronchial tumours)","route":"/cancers/pleuropulmonary-blastoma/"},{"id":"choroid-plexus-carcinoma","kind":"cancer","name":"Choroid plexus carcinoma","route":"/cancers/choroid-plexus-carcinoma/"},{"id":"desmoplastic-small-round-cell-tumour","kind":"cancer","name":"Desmoplastic small round cell tumour","route":"/cancers/desmoplastic-small-round-cell-tumour/"},{"id":"dipg-dmg","kind":"cancer","name":"Diffuse midline glioma, H3 K27-altered (including DIPG)","route":"/cancers/dipg-dmg/"},{"id":"ependymoma","kind":"cancer","name":"Ependymoma","route":"/cancers/ependymoma/"},{"id":"ewing-sarcoma","kind":"cancer","name":"Ewing sarcoma","route":"/cancers/ewing-sarcoma/"},{"id":"paediatric-germ-cell-tumours","kind":"cancer","name":"Germ cell tumours of childhood and adolescence (extracranial and CNS)","route":"/cancers/paediatric-germ-cell-tumours/"},{"id":"hepatoblastoma","kind":"cancer","name":"Hepatoblastoma","route":"/cancers/hepatoblastoma/"},{"id":"hodgkin-lymphoma","kind":"cancer","name":"Hodgkin lymphoma","route":"/cancers/hodgkin-lymphoma/"},{"id":"medulloblastoma","kind":"cancer","name":"Medulloblastoma","route":"/cancers/medulloblastoma/"},{"id":"myeloid-leukaemia-of-down-syndrome","kind":"cancer","name":"Myeloid leukaemia of Down syndrome","route":"/cancers/myeloid-leukaemia-of-down-syndrome/"},{"id":"neuroblastoma","kind":"cancer","name":"Neuroblastoma (paediatric)","route":"/cancers/neuroblastoma/"},{"id":"optic-pathway-glioma","kind":"cancer","name":"Optic pathway glioma","route":"/cancers/optic-pathway-glioma/"},{"id":"osteosarcoma","kind":"cancer","name":"Osteosarcoma","route":"/cancers/osteosarcoma/"},{"id":"paediatric-high-grade-glioma","kind":"cancer","name":"Paediatric high-grade glioma (excluding diffuse midline glioma)","route":"/cancers/paediatric-high-grade-glioma/"},{"id":"paediatric-low-grade-glioma","kind":"cancer","name":"Paediatric low-grade glioma","route":"/cancers/paediatric-low-grade-glioma/"},{"id":"pancreatoblastoma","kind":"cancer","name":"Pancreatoblastoma","route":"/cancers/pancreatoblastoma/"},{"id":"pleuropulmonary-blastoma-dicer1","kind":"cancer","name":"Pleuropulmonary blastoma (types I, Ir, II and III)","route":"/cancers/pleuropulmonary-blastoma-dicer1/"},{"id":"poorly-differentiated-chordoma","kind":"cancer","name":"Poorly differentiated chordoma (SMARCB1-deficient)","route":"/cancers/poorly-differentiated-chordoma/"},{"id":"rare-childhood-cancers","kind":"cancer","name":"Rare cancers of childhood (NCI PDQ umbrella)","route":"/cancers/rare-childhood-cancers/"},{"id":"retinoblastoma","kind":"cancer","name":"Retinoblastoma","route":"/cancers/retinoblastoma/"},{"id":"rhabdomyosarcoma","kind":"cancer","name":"Rhabdomyosarcoma","route":"/cancers/rhabdomyosarcoma/"},{"id":"sertoli-cell-tumour","kind":"cancer","name":"Sertoli cell tumour of the testis","route":"/cancers/sertoli-cell-tumour/"},{"id":"wilms-tumor","kind":"cancer","name":"Wilms tumour (nephroblastoma)","route":"/cancers/wilms-tumor/"}],"technology":[{"id":"rejuv-ayac-distinct-group","kind":"technology","name":"Adolescents and young adults: a group with its own cancers, its own gap and its own needs","route":"/technologies/rejuv-ayac-distinct-group/"},{"id":"rejuv-paed-bone","kind":"technology","name":"Bone after childhood cancer: peak bone mass, osteonecrosis and what rebuilds","route":"/technologies/rejuv-paed-bone/"},{"id":"rejuv-paed-breast-after-chest-radiotherapy","kind":"technology","name":"Breast cancer after chest radiotherapy in childhood, and the screening that follows","route":"/technologies/rejuv-paed-breast-after-chest-radiotherapy/"},{"id":"car-t","kind":"technology","name":"CAR-T cell therapy","route":"/technologies/car-t/"},{"id":"rejuv-ayac-education-and-work","kind":"technology","name":"Education, work and the years that were interrupted","route":"/technologies/rejuv-ayac-education-and-work/"},{"id":"rejuv-paed-fertility-male","kind":"technology","name":"Fertility in boys and young men treated for cancer, including testicular tissue banking","route":"/technologies/rejuv-paed-fertility-male/"},{"id":"rejuv-paed-fertility-female","kind":"technology","name":"Fertility in girls and young women treated for cancer, including ovarian tissue freezing","route":"/technologies/rejuv-paed-fertility-female/"},{"id":"rejuv-paed-growth-and-height","kind":"technology","name":"Growth and final height after treatment in childhood, and growth hormone","route":"/technologies/rejuv-paed-growth-and-height/"},{"id":"rejuv-paed-hearing","kind":"technology","name":"Hearing after platinum and cranial radiotherapy in a developing child","route":"/technologies/rejuv-paed-hearing/"},{"id":"rejuv-ayac-diagnostic-delay","kind":"technology","name":"How long it takes to diagnose cancer in a young person, and what the evidence actually says","route":"/technologies/rejuv-ayac-diagnostic-delay/"},{"id":"rejuv-paed-chronic-disease-burden","kind":"technology","name":"How much illness childhood cancer survivors carry, and at what age","route":"/technologies/rejuv-paed-chronic-disease-burden/"},{"id":"rejuv-paed-kidneys","kind":"technology","name":"Kidneys after cisplatin, ifosfamide, radiotherapy and nephrectomy in childhood","route":"/technologies/rejuv-paed-kidneys/"},{"id":"rejuv-paed-late-mortality","kind":"technology","name":"Late deaths after childhood cancer, what causes them, and the proof that gentler treatment worked","route":"/technologies/rejuv-paed-late-mortality/"},{"id":"rejuv-paed-uk-long-term-follow-up","kind":"technology","name":"Long-term follow-up in the United Kingdom: what a survivor is actually offered","route":"/technologies/rejuv-paed-uk-long-term-follow-up/"},{"id":"rejuv-paed-neurocognitive","kind":"technology","name":"Memory, attention and learning after treatment of a childhood cancer","route":"/technologies/rejuv-paed-neurocognitive/"},{"id":"cns-tumour-methylation-classifier","kind":"technology","name":"Methylation classifier for brain tumours","route":"/technologies/cns-tumour-methylation-classifier/"},{"id":"sarcoma-methylation-classifier","kind":"technology","name":"Methylation classifier for sarcomas","route":"/technologies/sarcoma-methylation-classifier/"},{"id":"intensity-modulated-proton-therapy","kind":"technology","name":"Pencil-beam scanning and intensity-modulated proton therapy","route":"/technologies/intensity-modulated-proton-therapy/"},{"id":"photon-counting-ct","kind":"technology","name":"Photon-counting CT","route":"/technologies/photon-counting-ct/"},{"id":"proton-therapy-systems","kind":"technology","name":"Proton therapy machines: cyclotrons, synchrotrons and single-room systems","route":"/technologies/proton-therapy-systems/"},{"id":"rejuv-paed-second-cancers","kind":"technology","name":"Second cancers after childhood cancer: the risk by treatment, and why it is falling","route":"/technologies/rejuv-paed-second-cancers/"},{"id":"rejuv-ayac-services","kind":"technology","name":"Services built for teenagers and young adults, and what the national evaluation found","route":"/technologies/rejuv-ayac-services/"},{"id":"strain-echocardiography-gls","kind":"technology","name":"Strain echocardiography (global longitudinal strain)","route":"/technologies/strain-echocardiography-gls/"},{"id":"survivorship-care-plan","kind":"technology","name":"Survivorship care and late-effects surveillance","route":"/technologies/survivorship-care-plan/"},{"id":"rejuv-paed-teeth-and-face","kind":"technology","name":"Teeth, jaws and facial growth after treatment in childhood","route":"/technologies/rejuv-paed-teeth-and-face/"},{"id":"rejuv-paed-cog-ltfu-guidelines","kind":"technology","name":"The Children's Oncology Group Long-Term Follow-Up Guidelines","route":"/technologies/rejuv-paed-cog-ltfu-guidelines/"},{"id":"rejuv-paed-transition-to-adult-care","kind":"technology","name":"The handover from children's to adult services, where follow-up falls away","route":"/technologies/rejuv-paed-transition-to-adult-care/"},{"id":"rejuv-paed-heart","kind":"technology","name":"The heart after anthracyclines and chest radiotherapy in childhood","route":"/technologies/rejuv-paed-heart/"},{"id":"rejuv-paed-pituitary-and-puberty","kind":"technology","name":"The pituitary, puberty and the hypothalamic axis after cranial radiotherapy in childhood","route":"/technologies/rejuv-paed-pituitary-and-puberty/"},{"id":"tpmt-nudt15-genotyping","kind":"technology","name":"TPMT and NUDT15 genotyping before thiopurines","route":"/technologies/tpmt-nudt15-genotyping/"},{"id":"cardiac-biomarker-monitoring","kind":"technology","name":"Troponin and natriuretic peptide monitoring during cancer treatment","route":"/technologies/cardiac-biomarker-monitoring/"}],"target":[{"id":"cd19","kind":"target","name":"CD19","route":"/targets/cd19/"},{"id":"gd2","kind":"target","name":"GD2 (disialoganglioside)","route":"/targets/gd2/"}],"drug":[{"id":"blinatumomab","kind":"drug","name":"Blinatumomab","route":"/drugs/blinatumomab/"},{"id":"dinutuximab","kind":"drug","name":"Dinutuximab (ch14.18) / dinutuximab beta","route":"/drugs/dinutuximab/"},{"id":"methotrexate","kind":"drug","name":"Methotrexate","route":"/drugs/methotrexate/"},{"id":"naxitamab","kind":"drug","name":"Naxitamab","route":"/drugs/naxitamab/"},{"id":"obecabtagene-autoleucel","kind":"drug","name":"Obecabtagene autoleucel","route":"/drugs/obecabtagene-autoleucel/"},{"id":"tisagenlecleucel","kind":"drug","name":"Tisagenlecleucel","route":"/drugs/tisagenlecleucel/"},{"id":"tovorafenib","kind":"drug","name":"Tovorafenib","route":"/drugs/tovorafenib/"},{"id":"vincristine","kind":"drug","name":"Vincristine","route":"/drugs/vincristine/"}],"trial":[{"id":"nct05334823","kind":"trial","name":"A Study of pCAR-19B in the Treatment of CD19-positive Relapsed/Refractory B-ALL in Children and Adolescents","route":"/trials/nct05334823/"},{"id":"nct06149559","kind":"trial","name":"A Study of Rozanolixizumab in Pediatric Study Participants With Moderate to Severe Generalized Myasthenia 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(HEC)","route":"/trials/nct06904235/"}],"person":[{"id":"darren-hargrave","kind":"person","name":"Darren R. Hargrave","route":"/people/darren-hargrave/"},{"id":"giles-robinson","kind":"person","name":"Giles W. Robinson","route":"/people/giles-robinson/"},{"id":"inge-van-der-sluis","kind":"person","name":"Inge M. van der Sluis","route":"/people/inge-van-der-sluis/"},{"id":"jacques-grill","kind":"person","name":"Jacques Grill","route":"/people/jacques-grill/"},{"id":"kimberly-dunsmore","kind":"person","name":"Kimberly P. Dunsmore","route":"/people/kimberly-dunsmore/"},{"id":"rob-pieters","kind":"person","name":"Rob Pieters","route":"/people/rob-pieters/"},{"id":"sarah-leary","kind":"person","name":"Sarah E. S. 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